Economic Interactions and Flows
Degradation through Raw Materials Production
Identify the effects of agro-industrialization and changes in international production and consumption on the physical environment.
The globalization and industrialization of farming on a large scale. The characteristics of these farms include:
Examine the concept of food miles and the environmental consequences of increasing volumes of air freight.
Positive of increasing food miles
The Effects of Transnational Manufacturing and Services
Discuss the reasons for and consequences of relocation of polluting industries (such as some TNCs) and waste disposal (such as ICT, chemical and nuclear waste) to countries with weaker environmental controls and safety regulations.
Externalities
An impact or affect that is caused by an unconnected event or process. Externalities can be both positive and negative.
Negative externalities usually affect poor people the most. Poor people tend to be people who are forced to live near polluting factories because they can't afford to live anywhere else. The old/young and sick are also vulnerable to pollution caused by industry. Many polluting industries also choose to locate in LEDCs for a number of reasons including:
Examples of Positive Externalities
Examples of Negative Externalities
Case Study – Bhopal
Bhopal has a population of about 1.8 million and is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh (Central India). Bhopal is most well-known for the massive chemical leak that happened on the night of 3rd December 1984. The leak happened at a pesticide factory owned by the US Company Union Carbide. Methyl isocyante was released into the atmosphere during the explosion (a valve is believed to have exploded under pressure in a storage tank) and leak. The temperature inside the storage tank was about 200 degrees Celsius before the explosion. The temperature and pressure inside the tank increased because water leaked into the tank causing an exothermic reaction. In total about 30 metric tons of gas was released over a 60 minute period.
The exact number of deaths and injuries is not fully known have the state government said 3,787 deaths can be related to the leak and over 500,000 temporary or permanent injuries. However, some campaigners say that up 20,000 additional people have died since the disaster.
A number of factors were blamed for the leak and the consequences of the leak, including:
Trans-boundary Pollution
Describe one major pollution event affect more than one country and examine the consequences of and responses to this event.
Case Study – Midway Island
Examine the growth of environmental awareness as a consequence of these global interactions.
Case Study – BP Oil Spill
Examine the role of one international civil society organization in fostering improved environmental management.
Civil Society
Any organization or movement that works in the area between the household, the private sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern.
Case Study - Green Peace
Homogenization of Landscapes
Explain the evolution of uniform urban landscapes; the effects of common commercial activity, structures, styles of construction and infrastructure.
Homogenisation
The process of people, products and places becoming the same.
Contact zone
Where one culture meets another culture. This normally happens because one culture is expanding into new areas. This obviously happened through colonisation in the past, put is increasingly happening through economic expansion now.
Cultural diffusion
This is the spread of cultural ideas around the world. The two main ways this can happen are through expansion (more likely trade than colonisation these days) and relocation.
Expansion diffusion
When an idea or culture spreads from a central location. The best modern example is probably the growth of Islam from the Arabian Peninsula. With expansion diffusion the idea/culture remain strong in the source location.
Relocation diffusion
Now that people are more footloose, they travel the world to a greater extent. When they move to a new area, they may take some of their ideas with them that then spread to their new location e.g. teachers bringing rugby and cricket to El Salvador. If the movement of people from the source is great, this may actually weaken the original culture or idea in the source.
Distance-time decay
The further the distance from the source of the original culture or idea the less strongly the new idea will be adopted.
Hybridisation
When two cultures meet they may adapt and merge to create a new type of culture. In South Vietnam the Caodaism religion was established in 1926 from a mixture of the following religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Taoism, as well as Geniism.
Adaption
When a new culture is accepted, it is often adapted (changed slightly) to fit in with existing cultures and ideas. In some circumstances the new culture or idea may adapt themselves. Many fast food restaurants adapt to fit new cultures - this is known as glocalisation.
Case Study – Dubai
Horse riding and falconery are still important, but now people in Dubai enjoy most international sports and Dubai host many important sporting events including: IRB Rugby Sevens, Race to Dubai Golf, international cricket fixtures and ATP Tennis. There is now even an indoor ice rink in Dubai Mall and an indoor ski slope in the Mall of the Emirates.
Shopping
Souks do still exist, but most food shopping is now done in supermarkets e.g. Carrefour and Waitrose and most other shopping in malls e.g. Dubai Mall, Mall of the Emirates, Deira and Mirdiff City Centre Malls - Dubai Mall is one of the largest in the world with over 1200 shops.
Global Brands
There are now many different global shops and brands available in Dubai e.g. NEXT, GAP, Nike, Debenhams, Marks and Spencer, IKEA and Decathlon.
Restaurants
Dubai has seen an explosion in fast food restaurants, with Burger King, McDonald's, Pizza Hut, Starbucks, KFC being found everywhere. International cuisine is also very common with people like Gordon Ramsey having a restaurant in Dubai.
Tourism
Dubai is now a popular tourism destination with major airline like Emirates based in Dubai and airlines like Qantas, BA and Singapore Airlines all flying to Dubai. Hotel chains like the Hilton and IHG have a major presence.
Entertainment
People now take in a wide variety of activities ranging from the cinema to quad biking, kite surfing to music concerts and yoga to paintballing.
Schooling
There are still local government schools, but also a growing number of international schools that teach in English e.g. Repton and JESS. Many foreign teachers are recruited and international and British qualifications are often sat. Most universities teach in English.
Housing
Not many people now live in tents. Most people live in compounds, apartments and suburb style developments e.g. Dubai Marina. Most people will now use air con and cookers instead of wind towers and fires.
Transport
Not many people now walk or use camels, although dhows are still common sights. The most favoured form of transport is now 4x4. However, Dubai now also has a metro, monorail and bus system along with an international airport.
Other
With the development of Dubai other sites are now more common e.g. parks, cricket pitches, football pitches, churches and canals.
Culture
With the arrival of so many different nationalities, some aspects of Dubai culture have changed, pork and alcohol are now both available in licensed shops, you see more people wearing western dress (although most local still wear traditional dress), English is now the main business language, there are now different religions and religious buildings e.g. Hinduism and Christianity, people listen to more international music and watch international films.
Identify the effects of agro-industrialization and changes in international production and consumption on the physical environment.
The globalization and industrialization of farming on a large scale. The characteristics of these farms include:
- Large scale
- Use of machinery
- Often specialization in one or a limited number of products (monoculture)
- IT management systems
- Intensive use of chemicals
- Low labor inputs in comparison to outputs
- Often owned by agribusiness companies (many of which are TNCs)
- Maybe vertically integrated with food processing companies.
Examine the concept of food miles and the environmental consequences of increasing volumes of air freight.
Positive of increasing food miles
- Increased variety of food e.g. food like sugar, pineapples, grapes and coconuts that don't grow in the UK are available in UK supermarkets
- Availability of food all year e.g. strawberries which only grow in the summer in the UK area available all year.
- Increased market for farmers e.g. LEDC farmers and companies can sell their products to overseas markets
- Reduced need for heating greenhouses in cold climates and irrigating in arid climates
- Increased cultural diversity as different flavors and dishes become available
- Decreased food prices through economies of scale
- Loss of local fruit varieties and food stuffs e.g. there is over 7,500 types of apple, but most have been lost with varieties like granny smiths and golden delicious dominating the market place
- Increased pollution from transporting food e.g. carbon emissions especially from air travel
- Possible homogenization off foodstuffs
- Possible animal cruelty if live animals are transported e.g. cattle from Australia to Middle East
- A concentration on food export might lead to food shortages in LEDCs
- Small LEDC farms make get taken over by large agribusinesses
The Effects of Transnational Manufacturing and Services
Discuss the reasons for and consequences of relocation of polluting industries (such as some TNCs) and waste disposal (such as ICT, chemical and nuclear waste) to countries with weaker environmental controls and safety regulations.
Externalities
An impact or affect that is caused by an unconnected event or process. Externalities can be both positive and negative.
Negative externalities usually affect poor people the most. Poor people tend to be people who are forced to live near polluting factories because they can't afford to live anywhere else. The old/young and sick are also vulnerable to pollution caused by industry. Many polluting industries also choose to locate in LEDCs for a number of reasons including:
- More relaxed environmental regulations
- Less enforcement of environmental regulations (this might be because they can't afford to enforce, because they are being paid to overlook (corruption), or they are worried about losing FDI.
- Access to a new potential marketplace
- Access to raw materials (which again might be extracted using polluting methods)
- Availability of cheap labour
- Cheap land and building materials (possibly relaxed building regulations)
- Depending on the type of externality, some can just have local impacts on the surrounding houses and communities or others can have much bigger impacts covering whole countries or even the globe. The Chernobyl Nuclear accident in the Ukraine has created long-tern negative externalities, but it also greater much wider temporary negative externalities across much of Europe.
Examples of Positive Externalities
- Local businesses may see an increase in business as workers and customers buy from local shops.
- Transport links e.g. access roads may be improved
- Improved recognition and reputation of an area that may attract future investment and FDI.
- Improved electricity, gas and water provision.
- Possibly improved education, leisure and medical facilities to cater for increased population and wealth.
Examples of Negative Externalities
- Increased noise pollution because of deliveries and equipment
- Increased congestion on roads because of deliveries and workers
- Increased air pollution because of equipment and vehicles (this can be local and/or global)
- Increased damage to road because of HGVs (heavy good vehicles). These might also cause damage to property through vibrations
- Increased visual pollution (especially factories) which are not pleasant to look at
- Increased water pollution (surface and groundwater). Polluted water might be necessary for drinking, farming or enjoying for leisure
Case Study – Bhopal
Bhopal has a population of about 1.8 million and is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh (Central India). Bhopal is most well-known for the massive chemical leak that happened on the night of 3rd December 1984. The leak happened at a pesticide factory owned by the US Company Union Carbide. Methyl isocyante was released into the atmosphere during the explosion (a valve is believed to have exploded under pressure in a storage tank) and leak. The temperature inside the storage tank was about 200 degrees Celsius before the explosion. The temperature and pressure inside the tank increased because water leaked into the tank causing an exothermic reaction. In total about 30 metric tons of gas was released over a 60 minute period.
The exact number of deaths and injuries is not fully known have the state government said 3,787 deaths can be related to the leak and over 500,000 temporary or permanent injuries. However, some campaigners say that up 20,000 additional people have died since the disaster.
A number of factors were blamed for the leak and the consequences of the leak, including:
- Its location next to residential areas
- Poor plant maintenance
- A lack of skilled operators
- Poorly trained management
- Reduction in safety management
- Lack of safety guidelines
- Safety alarms did not work
- There was only one manual back up system (compared to four in US)
- Fare towers and scrubbers were not working
- Refrigeration system was turned off and the water cooling system did not have enough pressure
Trans-boundary Pollution
Describe one major pollution event affect more than one country and examine the consequences of and responses to this event.
Case Study – Midway Island
- Midway island is small and isolated.
- It is a coral atoll.
- Flag contains an albatross.
- In the middle of the pacific between Hawaii (USA) and Japan.
- Battle of Midway in WWII was one of the world’s most fearsome battles.
- Relics of war still on the island.
- Whirlpools of water --> ocean of current meaning that plastic goes on the shores from other countries.
- New battle of midway --> plastics.
- Midway is home to more than 1 million layson albatrosses.
- Significant to ancient Marinara -- not too far from land.
- Despite their isolation, they are threatened by plastic pollutants.
- Coming from North America, Asia.
- Killing animals thousands of miles where its produced.
- Birds mistake plastic for food and swoop down and eat it --> mothers regurgitate it to the children.
- Floating plastic is distributed globally by ocean current --> gyre.
- Eastern pacific plastic is floating around.
- Plastic is hard to recycle and it has a low melting point
- 2 million plastic beverage bottles used everyday
- Amount of packaging is increasing
- 260 million tons plastic every year (1/2 million 1950s)
- 80% of trash comes from land (stuff like plastic bag blowing), other 20% is dumped directly in.
- We dump - goes down streams and rivers and then into ocean.
- 6 million pieces of litter enter the ocean every day.
- Debris (like plastic) that doesn’t biodegrade (it photodegrades - light brakes it down), and once entering the pacific gyre, it doesn’t leave the ocean.
- TNCs causing consumption and eventual disposal - governments not helping at all (so they help cause too).
- Lack of individual responsibility
- Albatross dying with stomach full of plastics--> bottle caps, cigarette lighters, retainer rings
- Ugly beaches
- Fish at the bottom of the food chain --> 84 pieces of plastic (we eat fish!)
- By 2010, more plastic in the ocean than all of the plastic in the entire 20th century.
- Plastic kills 1.5 marine organisms annually.
- 260 million tons plastic every year.
- Marine life mistakes the photodegraded plastic for food - entering the food chain.
- More plastic than plankton (40:1 ratio in some parts of the ocean). Toxic chemicals are consumed with plastic.
- The albatrosses on Midway Island --> bring back a total of 5 tons of plastic every year (to eat, feed chicks).
- All sea turtles in US waters are endangered - eat everything they see (biodegradable is fine) - mistake it for food.
- 1 in 150 has autism (1 in 2500 in the 1970s) –plastic could be a cause
- Coastal clean-up day --> 11,000 pieces of plastic in Long Beach alone.
- Earth day displays
- Straining plastics (can’t afford, kill marine life)
- Stop on land -->before it reaches the ocean.
- Dr. Marcus Erikkson - went across the ocean to raise awareness - from California to Hawaii (boat made by 15000 plastic bottles).
- "Noah" do marine debris trips - cleaning it (collect debris).
- Attempt to encourage material reduction - single use items.
- Private organizations/NGOs try but have no power.
Examine the growth of environmental awareness as a consequence of these global interactions.
Case Study – BP Oil Spill
- Increased publicity and campaigning by NGOs and charitable organisations e.g. Greenpeace
- Increased coverage of environmental problems by media organisations e.g. BBC and CNN
- Environmental disasters like the BP Oil Spill have heightened awareness
- Improved economic development allows people to consider other matters rather than just the economy and making money
- Because people have more leisure time and greater disposable income they have more time to enjoy the environment so would like it protected
- Government have created more protected areas e.g. National Parks as well as the UN e.g. World Heritage Sites which has increased the profile of the environment
- Political parties like the Green party in the UK are growing in importance and stature and are increasing people awareness
- Environmental campaigns can be spread easily via social media like Youtube, Twitter and blogs
- Education about the environment e.g. the three R (reduce, reuse, recycle) has improved at school
- The number of recycling centres and recycling bins have increased which has increased awareness
- Environmental labelling e.g. FSC and Dolphin Friendly have made consumers more aware of the environment
- The environment has been made one of the Millennium Development Goals - Goal 7 is Environmental Sustainability
- UN conferences like the Rio Earth Summit have increased global awareness of the environment
- Global issues like acid rain, the greenhouse effect and the hole in the ozone layer are better understood and better publicized and taught
Examine the role of one international civil society organization in fostering improved environmental management.
Civil Society
Any organization or movement that works in the area between the household, the private sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern.
Case Study - Green Peace
- Established in Vancouver, Canada in 1971, Greenpeace international today has an international reach of 40 countries. But is it achieving its aims?
- Their aim is to raise awareness, and protect the environment.
- Greenpeace are involved in protests. Protected 2.1 million hectares of the amazon. Helped ban corporations from dumping radioactive waste. Forced the EU to ban driftnet fishing worldwide and many more...
- They sometimes go against the law, or they step into the plans of big corporations.
- Annual income = 200 million dollars.
- These days, they are very solution based rather than just complaining about the problem itself.
- Example of their work: trying to stop the creation of a power plant in Italy by aggressive measures such as preventing the coal from being transported by getting in the way.
Homogenization of Landscapes
Explain the evolution of uniform urban landscapes; the effects of common commercial activity, structures, styles of construction and infrastructure.
Homogenisation
The process of people, products and places becoming the same.
Contact zone
Where one culture meets another culture. This normally happens because one culture is expanding into new areas. This obviously happened through colonisation in the past, put is increasingly happening through economic expansion now.
Cultural diffusion
This is the spread of cultural ideas around the world. The two main ways this can happen are through expansion (more likely trade than colonisation these days) and relocation.
Expansion diffusion
When an idea or culture spreads from a central location. The best modern example is probably the growth of Islam from the Arabian Peninsula. With expansion diffusion the idea/culture remain strong in the source location.
Relocation diffusion
Now that people are more footloose, they travel the world to a greater extent. When they move to a new area, they may take some of their ideas with them that then spread to their new location e.g. teachers bringing rugby and cricket to El Salvador. If the movement of people from the source is great, this may actually weaken the original culture or idea in the source.
Distance-time decay
The further the distance from the source of the original culture or idea the less strongly the new idea will be adopted.
Hybridisation
When two cultures meet they may adapt and merge to create a new type of culture. In South Vietnam the Caodaism religion was established in 1926 from a mixture of the following religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Taoism, as well as Geniism.
Adaption
When a new culture is accepted, it is often adapted (changed slightly) to fit in with existing cultures and ideas. In some circumstances the new culture or idea may adapt themselves. Many fast food restaurants adapt to fit new cultures - this is known as glocalisation.
Case Study – Dubai
- Population of 2.2 million
- 15% are Emirati
- South Asian account for 65% of the population
- 43% Indians
Horse riding and falconery are still important, but now people in Dubai enjoy most international sports and Dubai host many important sporting events including: IRB Rugby Sevens, Race to Dubai Golf, international cricket fixtures and ATP Tennis. There is now even an indoor ice rink in Dubai Mall and an indoor ski slope in the Mall of the Emirates.
Shopping
Souks do still exist, but most food shopping is now done in supermarkets e.g. Carrefour and Waitrose and most other shopping in malls e.g. Dubai Mall, Mall of the Emirates, Deira and Mirdiff City Centre Malls - Dubai Mall is one of the largest in the world with over 1200 shops.
Global Brands
There are now many different global shops and brands available in Dubai e.g. NEXT, GAP, Nike, Debenhams, Marks and Spencer, IKEA and Decathlon.
Restaurants
Dubai has seen an explosion in fast food restaurants, with Burger King, McDonald's, Pizza Hut, Starbucks, KFC being found everywhere. International cuisine is also very common with people like Gordon Ramsey having a restaurant in Dubai.
Tourism
Dubai is now a popular tourism destination with major airline like Emirates based in Dubai and airlines like Qantas, BA and Singapore Airlines all flying to Dubai. Hotel chains like the Hilton and IHG have a major presence.
Entertainment
People now take in a wide variety of activities ranging from the cinema to quad biking, kite surfing to music concerts and yoga to paintballing.
Schooling
There are still local government schools, but also a growing number of international schools that teach in English e.g. Repton and JESS. Many foreign teachers are recruited and international and British qualifications are often sat. Most universities teach in English.
Housing
Not many people now live in tents. Most people live in compounds, apartments and suburb style developments e.g. Dubai Marina. Most people will now use air con and cookers instead of wind towers and fires.
Transport
Not many people now walk or use camels, although dhows are still common sights. The most favoured form of transport is now 4x4. However, Dubai now also has a metro, monorail and bus system along with an international airport.
Other
With the development of Dubai other sites are now more common e.g. parks, cricket pitches, football pitches, churches and canals.
Culture
With the arrival of so many different nationalities, some aspects of Dubai culture have changed, pork and alcohol are now both available in licensed shops, you see more people wearing western dress (although most local still wear traditional dress), English is now the main business language, there are now different religions and religious buildings e.g. Hinduism and Christianity, people listen to more international music and watch international films.